Full Title:
Listening with the Eyes: Interpretation of Reading and d/Deaf Communication in Charles Dickens’s Doctor Marigold
Janelle Capwell
Doctor Marigold, written by Charles Dickens, is one of the only pieces of Victorian literature that includes a d/Deaf character. The short story is narrated by Doctor Marigold himself, and follows the life he and his adopted daughter, Sophy, must share together. Sophy, the d/Deaf character, is seemingly an introspective young woman, even though her character-development happens only through Doctor Marigold’s narration. As a d/Deaf character, Sophy must live her life through her own unique methods of reading. Through the narration of a presumably “Hearing” character, Sophy is taught how to read and “sign.” The emphasis on reading throughout Dickens’s short story creates problematic interpretations when it comes to d/Deaf representation in the Victorian era, and even general representations of d/Deafness in literature. This essay focuses on the several different types of “reading” in association with depictions of d/Deafness and interactions with d/Deaf characters: reading written English words; reading “signs” Doctor Marigold creates; and how Sophy herself is “read” by Doctor Marigold and by extension—the “normative” Hearing society.
Alongside the literary analysis, this essay also touches upon d/Deaf literacy and representation, especially in terms of written English education in relation to the time era. Implications of this kind of d/Deaf representation can be quite concerning, but it was also a rare choice for Dickens to include a d/Deaf character in his short story. In the Victorian Era, but arguably this generalization also extends to modern day society, disability or persons with differently abled bodied were shamefully casted aside. Especially in terms of d/Deafness, seemingly an “invisible” disability, numerous d/Deaf individuals had a very difficult time integrating into society and accepting the main culture due to the lack of access to language. Access to language was also only privileged to certain schools that were labeled as “Deaf and Dumb” institutions in major cities. Those d/Deaf individuals who could not afford, or were not able to travel to larger cities, were not able to learn a language or how to effectively communicate with the common population. Arguably, attending a “Deaf and Dumb” institution also did not guarantee effective communication with the rest of the society because sign-language, or any other form of physical, rather than verbal, communication was not well known nor was it commonly encouraged during this time. This framework showcases how reading written English can be analyzed through d/Deaf characters; and by extension, how this can also create questionable representations.
For purposes of this essay, Deafness is referred to as the cultural position, with a capital D, which can also include populations who are Hard of Hearing. In terms of accessibility, this paper explores the perceived and/or possible reading experiences of populations whose hearing capacity has diminished (Coriale 116). A close analysis of the Sophy’s interactions with the world, Doctor Marigold, and who she interfaces with while at “Deaf and Dumb Establishment” in London, is representative of the problematic depictions of disability during the Victorian Era. Even though some depictions of d/Deaf experience in the short story are still problematic, there is some merit in Dickens’s choice to create a deaf character during this time as, who still, in a way, can live her life as a d/Deaf individual.
Doctor Marigold was written in 1865 and follows the storyline of a Cheap Jack who goes by the name of Doctor Marigold. Completely told through the Cheap Jack, the readership soon learns that Doctor Marigold is somewhat of a deceitful character—true to his trade. He was allegedly named after a doctor who helped deliver him as a baby, as a show of gratitude (1). Doctor Marigold describes himself as “a middle-aged man of broadish build, in cords, leggings, and a sleeved waistcoat the strings of which is always gone behind” (1-2). He also refers to himself as a top-notch Cheap Jack because of his inspiration from corrupt politicians (5). To Doctor Marigold, his occupation of being a Cheap Jack also constitutes a moral code he must live by, he states: “We tell ’em the truth about themselves to their faces, and scorn to court ’em. As to wenturesomeness in the way of puffing up the lots…It is considered in the Cheap Jack calling, that better patter can be made out of a gun than any article we put up from the cart, except a pair of spectacles” (8). After explaining himself and his career as a successful Cheap-Jack, he, then, affectionately talks about his daughter, by stating: “Little Sophy was such a brave child! She grew to be quite devoted to her poor father, though he could do so little to help her” (12). However, this part of the narration quickly transitions to a lament, as it becomes clear to the reader that Sophy died when she was young.
Though devastating, Sophy’s life and death is crucial to the analysis of d/Deaf representation and expectation within this short story. Jumping ahead, Doctor Marigold kind of “adopts” another child, who he names after his deceased child. This idea of “d/Deaf Sophy” being a replacement for “able-bodied Sophy” explicitly shows how severe expectations of written and oral literacy are thrust upon “d/Deaf Sophy” throughout the short story. Later on, Doctor Marigold narrates: “I at once give her the name of Sophy, to put her ever towards me in the attitude of my own daughter” (19-20), which tells the reader that he is “adopting” this new child with the expectations to fulfill the absence of the previous child. This rather problematic exchange becomes even more problematic when the layer of “non-able bodied” ability is raised and molded to fulfill the shoes of a once fully abled child. From here, the “d/Deaf” character Sophy will be referred to as just Sophy, and Doctor Marigold’s first daughter will be referred to as “able-bodied Sophy,” hopefully to avoid confusion.
Doctor Marigold first acquires Sophy a few years after the death of able-bodied Sophy while traveling into another city with his “Cheap-Jack cart” to attend a fair. Doctor Marigold narrates:
…sitting dozing against a muddy cart-wheel, I come upon the poor girl who was deaf and dumb. At the first look I might almost have judged that she had escaped from the Wild Beast Show; but at the second I thought better of her, and thought that if she was more cared for and more kindly used she would be like my child. She was just the same age that my own daughter would have been… (19).
At this point in the story, it becomes clear that Sophy merely serves as a replacement for the Cheap Jack. Doctor Marigold tries to assimilate Sophy to the life that he would have had if she was, indeed, “able-bodied Sophy;” therefore, also forcing Sophy to assimilate to able-bodied culture and practice. In the Victorian era, d/Deafness was likened to dumbness, which was how the society viewed deafness or any other form of hearing loss. So, it is to be expected that throughout literature during this time, deaf characters are also labeled as “dumb characters.” Representation of Sophy by Dickens, however, makes slight moves against this popular notion, since Dickens chooses to give independent actions, literacy, and other forms of education to Sophy that would maybe make her “less” deaf and dumb; which is also quite “rebellious” during this time.
Sophy later goes on to meet another d/Deaf individual while at the Deaf and Dumb institute that Doctor Marigold allows her to attend in London. This d/Deaf man later becomes her partner, and together they have a daughter who is a CODA, otherwise known as a “Child of Deaf Adults,” which means that Sophy’s daughter is Hearing. Dickens showcases Sophy’s individuality as a d/Deaf individual, in some ways, by demonstrating the acts of reading and literacy that are associated with Sophy as a d/Deaf individual throughout the short story. Sophy, even though she is a replacement for “able-bodied Sophy”, is still able to assimilate to normative society, and then overcomes that culture to accommodate her own individual needs to inherently make her own choices towards the end of the short story.
The first category of reading Sophy partakes in is the actual act of physically reading words in written English. The phrase “words in written English” is used to separate the aspects of oral English, which would most likely be unattainable by a Deaf individual at this time, and written English, which would be an aspect of “modern-day literacy” that might be a bit more attainable by a Deaf individual in the Victorian era. Lisa Bednar, in the book Literacy and Deaf People: Cultural and Contextual Perspectives, is quoted stating:
In spite of the fact that literacy is not a synonym for the English language, our (hearing)…culture tends to view it as such, ignoring other critical kinds of literacy—in the case of the deaf, for example, [gestural sign language]…Thus the Deaf have been advised—indeed, at times forced—to become at lease marginally skilled in what “hearies” have an easier time mastering, the written English language. (Brueggemann 2)
Thus, Doctor Marigold is accessing this traditional definition of literacy and choosing to force that upon Sophy by teaching her how to read letters. Sophy and Doctor Marigold spend a lot of time together in the Cheap-Jack cart, so Doctor Marigold takes this time with his daughter to teach her how to read written English. He goes on by stating exactly how he taught Sophy how to read letters, which is narrated in a way that is similar to describing how he would maybe teach a dog how to sit:
I got some large alphabets in a box, all the letters separate on bits of bone, and saying we was going to WINDSOR, I give her those letters in that order, and then at every milestone I showed her those same letters in that same order again, and pointed towards the abode of royalty. Another time I give her CART, and then chalked the same upon the cart. Another time I give her DOCTOR MARIGOLD and hung a corresponding inscription outside my waistcoat. People that met us might stare a bit and laugh, but what did I care, if she caught the idea? She caught it after long patience and trouble, and then we did begin to get on swimmingly, I believe you! (20)
Sophy’s ability to enter this type of discourse is also seen as quite “extraordinary” during this time. As father and daughter travel to the Deaf and Dumb Institute, Sophy is told to demonstrate her ability to read, much like a magic trick, and is praised for her extraordinary talent. Doctor Marigold narrates this experience by saying:
Then I showed him, and she wrote in printed writing many names of things and so forth; and we held some sprightly conversation, Sophy and me, about a little story in a book which the gentleman showed her, and which she was able to read. ‘This is most extraordinary,’ says the gentleman; ‘is it possible that you have been her only teacher?’ ‘I have been her only teacher, sir,’ I says, ‘besides herself.’ ‘Then,’ says the gentleman, and more acceptable words was never spoke to me, ‘you’re a clever fellow, and a good fellow.’ This he makes known to Sophy, who kisses his hands, claps her own, and laughs and cries upon it. (22)
The second form of reading Sophy obtains is the ability to read made-up “signs” Doctor Marigold creates for them to communicate. He narrates that they develop signs to communicate with each other by stating: “We had our signs, too, and they was hundreds in number” (20). However, the actual use of signing in the short story does not seem very conversationally based. Doctor Marigold’s use of signs is a promising choice, but later on the narration shifts the use of these sign to be more like “commands” that he only gives to Sophy, this is shown when Doctor Marigold says: “For when I give her the old sign, she rushed to my feet, and dropped upon her knees, holding up her hands to me with pouring tears of love and joy” (29). This instance of Doctor Marigold signing to his daughter seems to be, once again, similar to commanding a dog to “heel.” The descriptions of Sophy and Doctor Marigold signing, do seem quite problematic in the narration, since Doctor Marigold is oftentimes the only one signing to her and Sophy just responds by carrying out an action. However, she does acquire the ability to express herself by signing questions about things she is curious about, which develops her situational and intellectual abilities. Doctor Marigold narrates this inquiry by stating: “sometimes she would sit looking at me and considering hard how to communicate with me about something—how to ask me what she wanted explained” (20).
The third form of reading demonstrated in the short story, is how Sophy, as a d/Deaf individual, is read by other people. This type of reading is explicitly shown when she first visits the Deaf and Dumb Institute and is greeted by the headmaster, who makes it clear that he views his “deaf and dumb” students as less than, by saying to Doctor Marigold: “‘I feel,’ says the gentleman, ‘that it was you who raised her from misery and degradation, and brought her into communication with her kind” (29). Deaf individuals, like Sophy, were depicted as miserable, as the headmaster states, and by thrusting traditional views of literacy upon her—reading and writing in written English—Doctor Marigold might be labeled as a savior of sorts because he was able to give her the “gift” of “traditional” literacy. Later in the short story, after Sophy briefly returns from the Deaf and Dumb Institute to visit Doctor Marigold, there is a scene that demonstrates Doctor Marigold’s ability to read d/Deaf communication.
The Cheap-Jack notices a man wandering around the cart when his daughter returns home and soon realizes the man is also d/Deaf. Doctor Marigold, then, sneaks around the cart to spy on the d/Deaf communication happening between Sophy and the man, he narrates this by stating: “I knew every syllable that passed between them as well as they did. I listened with my eyes, which had come to be as quick and true with deaf and dumb conversation as my ears with the talk of people that can speak” (34). The use of the phrase “I listened with my eyes,” in a way, shows allegiance to his d/Deaf daughter because Doctor Marigold is narrating that there are other acceptable ways of listening—thus, listening with the eyes. The word choice also goes to show Dickens’s motives and possible allegiance with, or positive acknowledgment of, the Deaf community during this time, by going against the normative beliefs of “listening” as only being possible with physiological ears and functioning cochleae.
All in all, regardless of how the d/Deaf communication and representation is perceived in Charles Dickens’s short story Doctor Marigold, it is one of the only pieces of literature from the Victorian era that even remotely attempts to acknowledge d/Deaf experience. Accessibility, in terms of language, is a fundamental right for those are d/Deaf or Hard of Hearing. Accessibility matters. In terms of pedagogy and trying to bring awareness to d/Deafness and other differently bodied-experiences, incorporating analysis of d/Deaf characters, like Sophy, will provided a space where students with disabilities and their allies can appropriately discuss matters of accessibility, language, and accommodation in higher education. Hopefully some concepts in this essay will help to stimulate conversations in the classroom that help to inspire others to analyze literature by using different lenses that provide access and a safe space for all bodies.
Works Cited
Brueggemann, Brenda Jo. Literacy and Deaf People: Cultural and Contextual Perspectives. Gallaudet University Press, 2004.
Coriale, Danielle. “Reading through Deafness: Francis Galton and the Strange Science of Psychophysics.” Strange Science: Investigating the Limits of Knowledge in the Victorian Age, by Lara Karpenko et al., University of Michigan Press, 2017, pp. 105–124.
Dickens, Charles. Doctor Marigold. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.
Biography
Janelle Capwell is currently working towards her M.A. in English, with an emphasis in Rhetoric and Composition. She also identifies as Hard of Hearing, due to her profound hearing loss. Through her work, she tries to blend her interest in English with her passion for differently-bodied literature and Deaf culture.
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